Endogenous tumor necrosis factor protects the adult cardiac myocyte against ischemic-induced apoptosis in a murine model of acute myocardial infarction

Previous studies have shown that proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), are expressed after acute hemodynamic overloading and myocardial ischemia/infarction. To define the role of TNF in the setting of ischemia/infarction, we performed a series of acute coronary artery occlusions in mice lacking one or both TNF receptors. Left ventricular infarct size was assessed at 24 h after acute coronary occlusion by triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining in wild-type (both TNF receptors present) and mice lacking either the type 1 (TNFR1), type 2 (TNFR2), or both TNF receptors (TNFR1/TNFR2). Left ventricular infarct size as assessed by TTC staining was significantly greater (P < 0.005) in the TNFR1/TNFR2-deficient mice (77.2% ± 15.3%) when compared with either wild-type mice (46.8% ± 19.4%) or TNFR1-deficient (47.9% ± 10.6%) or TNFR2-deficient (41.6% ± 16.5%) mice. Examination of the extent of necrosis in wild-type and TNFR1/TNFR2-deficient mice by anti-myosin Ab staining demonstrated no significant difference between groups; however, the peak frequency and extent of apoptosis were accelerated in the TNFR1/TNFR2-deficient mice when compared with the wild-type mice. The increase in apoptosis in the TNFR1/TNFR2-deficient mice did not appear to be secondary to a selective up-regulation of the Fas ligand/receptor system in these mice. These data suggest that TNF signaling gives rise to one or more cytoprotective signals that prevent and/or delay the development of cardiac myocyte apoptosis after acute ischemic injury.

Enhanced somatic mutation rates induced in stem cells of mice by low chronic exposure to ethylnitrosourea.

We have found that the somatic mutation rate at the Dlb-1 locus increases exponentially during low daily exposure to ethylnitrosourea over 4 months. This effect, enhanced mutagenesis, was not observed at a lacI transgene in the same tissue, although the two loci respond very similarly to acute doses. Since both mutations are neutral, the mutant frequency was expected to increase linearly with time in response to a constant mutagenic exposure, as it did for lacI. Enhanced mutagenesis does not result from an overall sensitization of the animals, since mice that had first been treated with a low daily dose for 90 days and then challenged with a large acute dose were not sensitized to the acute dose. Nor was the increased mutant frequency due to selection, since animals that were treated for 90 days and then left untreated for up to 60 days showed little change from the 90-day frequency. The effect is substantial: about 8 times as many Dlb-1 mutants were induced between 90 and 120 days as in the first 30 days. This resulted in a reverse dose rate effect such that 90 mg/kg induced more mutants when delivered at 1 mg/kg per day than at 3 mg/kg per day. We postulate that enhanced mutagenesis arises from increased stem cell proliferation and the preferential repair of transcribed genes. Enhanced mutagenesis may be important for risk evaluation, as the results show that chronic exposures can be more mutagenic than acute ones and raise the possibility of synergism between chemicals at low doses.

Evidence for keratinocyte stem cells in vitro: Long term engraftment and persistence of transgene expression from retrovirus-transduced keratinocytes

Epidermis is renewed by a population of stem cells that have been defined in vivo by slow turnover, label retention, position in the epidermis, and enrichment in β1 integrin, and in vitro by clonogenic growth, prolonged serial passage, and rapid adherence to extracellular matrix. The goal of this study is to determine whether clonogenic cells with long-term growth potential in vitro persist in vivo and give rise to a fully differentiated epidermis. Human keratinocytes were genetically labeled in culture by transduction with a retrovirus encoding the lacZ gene and grafted to athymic mice. Analysis of the cultures before grafting showed that 21.1–27.8% of clonogenic cells with the capacity for >30 generations were successfully transduced. In vivo, β-galactosidase (β-gal) positive cells participated in the formation of a fully differentiated epithelium and were detected throughout the 40-week postgraft period, initially as loosely scattered clusters and later as distinct vertical columns. Viable cells recovered from excised grafts were seeded at clonal densities and 23.3–33.3% of the colonies thus formed were β-gal positive. In addition, no evidence of transgene inactivation was obtained: all keratinocyte colonies recovered from grafted tissue that were β-gal negative also lacked the lacZ transgene. These results show that cells with long-term growth properties in vitro do indeed persist in vivo and form a fully differentiated epidermis, thereby exhibiting the properties of stem cells.

Expansion in vitro of transplantable human cord blood stem cells demonstrated using a quantitative assay of their lympho-myeloid repopulating activity in nonobese diabetic–scid/scid mice

Human hematopoiesis originates in a population of stem cells with transplantable lympho-myeloid reconstituting potential, but a method for quantitating such cells has not been available. We now describe a simple assay that meets this need. It is based on the ability of sublethally irradiated immunodeficient nonobese diabetic–scid/scid (NOD/SCID) mice to be engrafted by intravenously injected human hematopoietic cells and uses limiting dilution analysis to measure the frequency of human cells that produce both CD34−CD19+ (B-lymphoid) and CD34+ (myeloid) colony-forming cell progeny in the marrow of such recipients 6 to 8 weeks post-transplant. Human cord blood (CB) contains ≈5 of these competitive repopulating units (CRU) per ml that have a similar distribution between the CD38− and CD38+ subsets of CD34+ CB cells as long-term culture-initiating cells (LTC-IC) (4:1 vs. 2:1). Incubation of purified CD34+CD38− human CB cells in serum-free medium containing flt-3 ligand, Steel factor, interleukin 3, interleukin 6, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor for 5–8 days resulted in a 100-fold expansion of colony-forming cells, a 4-fold expansion of LTC-IC, and a 2-fold (but significant, P < 0.02) increase in CRU. The culture-derived CRU, like the original CB CRU, generated pluripotent, erythroid, granulopoietic, megakaryopoietic, and pre-B cell progeny upon transplantation into NOD/SCID mice. These findings demonstrate an equivalent phenotypic heterogeneity amongst human CB cells detectable as CRU and LTC-IC. In addition, their similarly modest response to stimulation by a combination of cytokines that extensively amplify LTC-IC from normal adult marrow underscores the importance of ontogeny-dependent changes in human hematopoietic stem cell proliferation and self-renewal.

Hemato-lymphoid in vivo reconstitution potential of subpopulations derived from in vitro differentiated embryonic stem cells

During differentiation in vitro, embryonic stem (ES) cells generate progenitors for most hemato-lymphoid lineages. We studied the developmental potential of two ES cell subpopulations that share the fetal stem cell antigen AA4.1 but differ in expression of the lymphoid marker B220 (CD45R). Upon transfer into lymphoid deficient mice, the B220+ population generated a single transient wave of IgM+ IgD+ B cells but failed to generate T cells. In contrast, transfer of the B220− fraction achieved long-term repopulation of both T and B lymphoid compartments and restored humoral and cell-mediated immune reactions in the recipients. To assess the hemato-lymphopoietic potential of ES cell subsets in comparison to their physiological counterparts, cotransplantation experiments with phenotypically homologous subsets of fetal liver cells were performed, revealing a more potent developmental capacity of the latter. The results suggest that multipotential and lineage-committed lymphoid precursors are generated during in vitro differentiation of ES cells and that both subsets can undergo complete final maturation in vivo.

Integration of multiple instructive cues by neural crest stem cells reveals cell-intrinsic biases in relative growth factor responsiveness

Growth factors can influence lineage determination of neural crest stem cells (NCSCs) in an instructive manner, in vitro. Because NCSCs are likely exposed to multiple signals in vivo, these findings raise the question of how stem cells would integrate such combined influences. Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) promotes neuronal differentiation and glial growth factor 2 (GGF2) promotes glial differentiation; if NCSCs are exposed to saturating concentrations of both factors, BMP2 appears dominant. By contrast, if the cells are exposed to saturating concentrations of both BMP2 and transforming growth factor β1 (which promotes smooth muscle differentiation), the two factors appear codominant. Sequential addition experiments indicate that NCSCs require 48–96 hrs in GGF2 before they commit to a glial fate, whereas the cells commit to a smooth muscle fate within 24 hr in transforming growth factor β1. The delayed response to GGF2 does not reflect a lack of functional receptors; however, because the growth factor induces rapid mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation in naive cells. Furthermore, GGF2 can attenuate induction of the neurogenic transcription factor mammalian achaete-scute homolog 1, by low doses of BMP2. This short-term antineurogenic influence of GGF2 is not sufficient for glial lineage commitment, however. These data imply that NCSCs exhibit cell-intrinsic biases in the timing and relative dosage sensitivity of their responses to instructive factors that influence the outcome of lineage decisions in the presence of multiple factors. The relative delay in glial lineage commitment, moreover, apparently reflects successive short-term and longer-term actions of GGF2. Such a delay may help to explain why glia normally differentiate after neurons, in vivo.

Murine hematopoietic stem cells committed to macrophage/dendritic cell formation: Stimulation by Flk2-ligand with enhancement by regulators using the gp130 receptor chain

The stimulation by Flk2-ligand (FL) of blast colony formation by murine bone marrow cells was selectively potentiated by the addition of regulators sharing in common the gp130 signaling receptor–leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), oncostatin M, interleukin 11, or interleukin 6. Recloning of blast colony cells indicated that the majority were progenitor cells committed exclusively to macrophage formation and responding selectively to proliferative stimulation by macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Reculture of blast colony cells initiated by FL plus LIF in cultures containing granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor plus tumor necrosis factor α indicated that at least some of the cells were capable of maturation to dendritic cells. The cells forming blast colonies in response to FL plus LIF were unrelated to those forming blast colonies in response to stimulation by stem cell factor and appear to be a distinct subset of mature hematopoietic stem cells.

Syncytiotrophoblastic giant cells in teratocarcinoma-like tumors derived from Parp-disrupted mouse embryonic stem cells

The enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (Parp) catalyzes poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation reaction and is involved in DNA repair and cell death induction upon DNA damages. Meanwhile, poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation of chromosome-associated proteins is suggested to be implicated in the regulation of gene expression and cellular differentiation, both of which are important in tumorigenesis. To investigate directly the role of Parp deficiency in tumorigenicity and differentiation of embryonic stem (ES) cells during tumor formation, studies were conducted by using wild-type J1 (Parp+/+) ES cells and Parp+/− and Parp−/− ES clones generated by disrupting Parp exon 1. These ES cells, irrespective of the Parp genotype, produced tumors phenotypically similar to teratocarcinoma when injected s.c. into nude mice. Remarkably, all tumors derived from Parp−/− clones contained syncytiotrophoblastic giant cells (STGCs), which possess single or multiple megalo-nuclei. The STGCs were present within large areas of intratumoral hemorrhage. In contrast, neither STGC nor hemorrhage was observed in tumors of both wild-type J1 cells and Parp+/− clones. Electron microscopic examination showed that the STGCs possess microvilli on the cell surface and contained secretory granules in the cytoplasm. Furthermore, the cytoplasms of STGCs were strongly stained with antibody against mouse prolactin, which could similarly stain trophoblasts in placenta. These morphological and histochemical features indicate that the STGCs in teratocarcinoma-like tumors derived from Parp−/− clones belong to the trophoblast cell lineage. Our findings thus suggest that differentiation of ES cells into STGCs was possibly induced by the lack of Parp during the development of teratocarcinoma.

Removal of LIF (leukemia inhibitory factor) results in increased vitamin A (retinol) metabolism to 4-oxoretinol in embryonic stem cells

Retinoids, vitamin A (retinol) and its metabolic derivatives, are required for normal vertebrate development. In murine embryonic stem (ES) cells, which remain undifferentiated when cultured in the presence of LIF (leukemia inhibitory factor), little metabolism of exogenously added retinol takes place. After LIF removal, ES cells metabolize exogenously added retinol to 4-hydroxyretinol and 4-oxoretinol and concomitantly differentiate. The conversion of retinol to 4-oxoretinol is a high-capacity reaction because most of the exogenous retinol is metabolized rapidly, even when cells are exposed to physiological (≈1 μM) concentrations of retinol in the medium. No retinoic acid or 4-oxoRA synthesis from retinol was detected in ES cells cultured with or without LIF. The cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP26 (retinoic acid hydroxylase) is responsible for the metabolism of retinol to 4-oxoretinol, and CYP26 mRNA is greatly induced (>15-fold) after LIF removal. Concomitant with the expression of CYP26, differentiating ES cells grown in the absence of LIF activate the expression of the differentiation marker gene FGF-5 whereas the expression of the stem cell marker gene FGF-4 decreases. The strong correlation between the production of polar metabolites of retinol and the differentiation of ES cells upon removal of LIF suggests that one important action of LIF in these cells is to prevent retinol metabolism to biologically active, polar metabolites such as 4-oxoretinol.

Complementation of methylation deficiency in embryonic stem cells by a DNA methyltransferase minigene

Previous attempts to express functional DNA cytosine methyltransferase (EC 2.1.1.37) in cells transfected with the available Dnmt cDNAs have met with little or no success. We show that the published Dnmt sequence encodes an amino terminal-truncated protein that is tolerated only at very low levels when stably expressed in embryonic stem cells. Normal expression levels were, however, obtained with constructs containing a continuation of an ORF with a coding capacity of up to 171 amino acids upstream of the previously defined start site. The protein encoded by these constructs comigrated in SDS/PAGE with the endogenous enzyme and restored methylation activity in transfected cells. This was shown by functional rescue of Dnmt mutant embryonic stem cells that contain highly demethylated genomic DNA and fail to differentiate normally. When transfected with the minigene construct, the genomic DNA became remethylated and the cells regained the capacity to form teratomas that displayed a wide variety of differentiated cell types. Our results define an amino-terminal domain of the mammalian MTase that is crucial for stable expression and function in vivo.

Hematopoietic potential of stem cells isolated from murine skeletal muscle

We have discovered that cells derived from the skeletal muscle of adult mice contain a remarkable capacity for hematopoietic differentiation. Cells prepared from muscle by enzymatic digestion and 5-day in vitro culture were harvested, and 18 × 103 cells were introduced into each of six lethally irradiated recipients together with 200 × 103 distinguishable whole bone marrow cells. After 6 or 12 weeks, all recipients showed high-level engraftment of muscle-derived cells representing all major adult blood lineages. The mean total contribution of muscle cell progeny to peripheral blood was 56 ± 20% (SD), indicating that the cultured muscle cells generated approximately 10- to 14-fold more hematopoietic activity than whole bone marrow. When bone marrow from one mouse was harvested and transplanted into secondary recipients, all recipients showed high-level multilineage engraftment (mean 40%), establishing the extremely primitive nature of these stem cells. We also show that muscle contains a population of cells with several characteristics of bone marrow-derived hematopoietic stem cells, including high efflux of the fluorescent dye Hoechst 33342 and expression of the stem cell antigens Sca-1 and c-Kit, although the cells lack the hematopoietic marker CD45. We propose that this population accounts for the hematopoietic activity generated by cultured skeletal muscle. These putative stem cells may be identical to muscle satellite cells, some of which lack myogenic regulators and could be expected to respond to hematopoietic signals.

Mice cloned from embryonic stem cells

Cloning allows the asexual reproduction of selected individuals such that the offspring have an essentially identical nuclear genome. Cloning by nuclear transfer thus far has been reported only with freshly isolated cells and cells from primary cultures. We previously reported a method of cloning mice from adult somatic cells after nuclear transfer by microinjection. Here, we apply this method to clone mice from widely available, established embryonic stem (ES) cell lines at late passage. With the ES cell line R1, 29% of reconstructed oocytes developed in vitro to the morula/blastocyst stage, and 8% of these embryos developed to live-born pups when transferred to surrogate mothers. We thus cloned 26 mice from R1 cells. Nuclei from the ES cell line E14 also were shown to direct development to term. We present evidence that the nuclei of ES cells at G1- or G2/M-phases are efficiently able to support full development. Our findings demonstrate that late-passage ES cells can be used to produce viable cloned mice and provide a link between the technologies of ES cells and animal cloning. It thus may be possible to clone from a single cell a large number of individuals over an extended period.

Derivation of pluripotent stem cells from cultured human primordial germ cells

Human pluripotent stem cells would be invaluable for in vitro studies of aspects of human embryogenesis. With the goal of establishing pluripotent stem cell lines, gonadal ridges and mesenteries containing primordial germ cells (PGCs, 5–9 weeks postfertilization) were cultured on mouse STO fibroblast feeder layers in the presence of human recombinant leukemia inhibitory factor, human recombinant basic fibroblast growth factor, and forskolin. Initially, single PGCs in culture were visualized by alkaline phosphatase activity staining. Over a period of 7–21 days, PGCs gave rise to large multicellular colonies resembling those of mouse pluripotent stem cells termed embryonic stem and embryonic germ (EG) cells. Throughout the culture period most cells within the colonies continued to be alkaline phosphatase-positive and tested positive against a panel of five immunological markers (SSEA-1, SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1–60, and TRA-1–81) that have been used routinely to characterize embryonic stem and EG cells. The cultured cells have been continuously passaged and found to be karyotypically normal and stable. Both XX and XY cell cultures have been obtained. Immunohistochemical analysis of embryoid bodies collected from these cultures revealed a wide variety of differentiated cell types, including derivatives of all three embryonic germ layers. Based on their origin and demonstrated properties, these human PGC-derived cultures meet the criteria for pluripotent stem cells and most closely resemble EG cells.

Protamine-Cre recombinase transgenes efficiently recombine target sequences in the male germ line of mice, but not in embryonic stem cells

The production of subtle or conditional mutations in mice through the combined use of site-specific and homologous recombination has become an increasingly widespread experimental paradigm in mammalian genetics. Embryonic stem cells containing recombinase transgenes that were expressed in the male germ line, but not in other tissues or in the embryonic stem cells themselves, would substantially simplify the production of such alleles. Here we show that transgenes comprised of the mouse protamine 1 promoter and the Cre recombinase coding sequence mediate the efficient recombination of a Cre target transgene in the male germ line, but not in other tissues. Embryonic stem cell lines generated from one of these transgenic strains were transfected with targeting vectors that included loxP-flanked selectable markers, and homologously recombined alleles containing the marker and functional loxP sites were isolated. These results establish the potential of the system for substantially reducing the time, effort, and resources required to produce homologously recombined alleles in mice that have been secondarily rearranged by a site-specific recombinase.

Purified hematopoietic stem cells without facilitating cells can repopulate fully allogeneic recipients across entire major histocompatibility complex transplantation barrier in mice

We report herein the successful long term engraftment of highly purified hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) without any facilitating cells in fully allogeneic recipient mice across the entire major histocompatibility complex (MHC) transplantation barrier. This finding challenges the assumption that highly purified marrow HSCs alone cannot produce long-lived allogeneic bone marrow chimeras across the MHC barrier. In the present experiments, 1 × 105 HSCs from 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-treated donors, without any facilitating cells, have been found to repopulate lethally irradiated fully allogeneic recipients. Low density, lineage-negative (CD4−, CD8−, B220−, Mac-1−, Gr-1−), CD71-negative, class I highly positive, FACS-sorted cells from 5-FU-treated C57BL/6 (B6) donor mice were transplanted into lethally irradiated BALB/c recipients. (BALB/c → BALB/c) → BALB/c T cell-depleted marrow cells used as compromised cells were also transplanted into the recipients to permit experiments to be pursued over a long period of time. Cells of donor origin in all recognized lineages of hematopoietic cells developed in these allogeneic chimeras. One thousand HSCs were sufficient to repopulate hemiallogeneic recipients, but 1 × 104 HSCs alone from 5-FU-treated donors failed to repopulate the fully allogeneic recipients. Transplantation of primary marrow stromal cells or bones of the donor strain into recipient, together with 1 × 104 HSCs, also failed to reconstitute fully allogeneic recipients. Suppression of resistance of recipients by thymectomy or injections of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor before stem cell transplantation enhanced the engraftment of allogeneic HSCs. Our experiments show that reconstitution of all lymphohematopoietic lineages across the entire MHC transplantation barriers may be achieved by transplanting allogeneic HSCs alone, without any facilitating cells, as long as a sufficient number of HSCs is transplanted.